Intro4u2u

There is a need for accurate flow measurement of numerous liquids, gases and vapors in many industries. For instance, food processing plants need to have an accurate measure of types of materials that go into the products on a large, automated scale. In the semiconductor industry, small amounts of gases have to be applied to the production process. Accurate delivery of these gases is essential to ensure the quality of the finished product.

As already mentioned, the mass flow or the volume flow are the measurements that are needed in these processes. In the case of mass flow, the Coriolis flow meter (also known as the inertial flow meter) is commonly used.

The Coriolis flow meter gets it’s name from the Coriolis effect that was first described by Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis in 1835. Coriolis worked in understanding the behaviors of objects in motion due to the various forces that applied to them. To this extent, the Coriolis mass flow meter works in this manner.

If a liquid or gas is passing through a tube it applies a force to the tube. When the tube is already moving, then the substance passing through it will change the movement or vibration of that tube. The change in the amplitude of the vibration of the tube can be used to determine the mass of a flow of the substance passing through the tube.

This is possible provided various other factors are known about the tube, such as the width, the type of material that it is made from, the vibrating frequency of the tube and it’s inertia. The flow density of the material passing through the tube is also needed.

Coriolis flowmeters are popular because they need little maintenance. By comparison to other devices that perform flow measurement they are well designed to the extent that little can go wrong with them. They do not need to be re-calibrated like other types of flow meters.

With this said, the flow meter does need to be checked from time to time, especially if the substances that pass through the tubing are hot or corrosive.

If you are using these types of substances the chances are you will have noted this when initially specifying the type of flow meter you need. Many flow meters will not be able to handle hot liquids or corrosive gases. A specially made flow meter would be required for these purposes.

When it comes to selecting a coriolis meter, you want to make sure it meets all your needs. You should also look for the best you can afford as this is a fair measure of the quality of the meter. Coriolis flow meters, and gas mass flow meters, are designed to be accurate and they’re designed to save you time and money so you will make this initial expense back on increased efficiency in the workplace

Coriolis flowmeters are relatively new compared to other flowmeters. They were not seen in industrial applications until 1980’s. Coriolis meters are available in a number of different designs. A popular configuration consists of one or two U-shaped, horseshoe-shaped, or tennis-racket-shaped (generalized U-shaped) flow tube with inlet on one side and outlet on the other enclosed in a sensor housing connected to an electronics unit.

The flow is guided into the U-shaped tube. When an osillating excitation force is applied to the tube causing it to vibrate, the fluid flowing through the tube will induce a rotation or twist to the tube because of the Coriolis acceleration acting in opposite directions on either side of the applied force. For example, when the tube is moving upward during the first half of a cycle, the fluid flowing into the meter resists being forced up by pushing down on the tube. On the opposite side, the liquid flowing out of the meter resists having its vertical motion decreased by pushing up on the tube. This action causes the tube to twist. When the tube is moving downward during the second half of the vibration cycle, it twists in the opposite direction. This twist results in a phase difference (time lag) between the inlet side and the outlet side and this phase difference is directly affected by the mass passing through the tube.

A more rescent single straight tube design is available to measure some dirty and/or abrasive liquids that may clog the older U-shaped design.

An advantage of Coriolis flowmeters is that it measures the mass flow rate directly which eliminates the need to compensate for changing temperature, viscosity, and pressure conditions. Please also note that the vibration of Coriolis flowmeters has very samll amplitude, usually less than 2.5 mm (0.1 in), and the frequency is near the natural frequency of the device, usually around 80 Hz. Finally, the vibration is commonly introduced by electric coils and measured by megnetic sensors.

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Further Information

Suppose that the fluid is flowing into the U-shaped tube at velocity V and the tube is vibrating at angular velocity . Consider a small section of the fluid that is on the inlet side away from the point of flexture at distance r.

Please note that the amplitudes of the vibration and twist are extremely small compared to the size of the U-shaped tube. The above graphics are highly exaggerated for illustration purposes.

The Coriolis force on the small fluid section m is

During the down cycle, the tube applys an upward resisting force to the fluid or the fluid pushes the tube down. On the outlet side, the Coriolis force has the opposite direction.

To simply the problem, we assume that the tube has a perfect U shape with a cross section area of A. The length and width are l, d, respectively. The opposite directions of Coriolis forces on inlet and outlet sides result in a twisting moment Tc

A K factor can be introduced to compensate for the more generalized U-shape.

where Qm = AV is the mass flow rate.

The governing equation of twisting is

where Iu is the inertia of the U-shaped tube, Cu is the damping coefficient, Ku is the stiffness, is the twist angle, and t is time.

Recall that the Coriolis flowmeters are vibrating the U-shaped tube to generate the rotation, the real angular velocity is function of vibrating frequency :

Assuming that the damping term Cu is negligible, the equation of twisting becomes

The particular solution (steady-state solution) of the twist angle is

Furthermore, the velocity of the turning corners of the U-shaped tube are  and the displacement difference between these two corners is d/2. Therefore, the time lag between these two corners is

By measuring the time lag , the mass flow rate can be obtained

In vibration analysis, it is custom to use the natural frequency as a basis and normalize frequency terms against it. The natural frequency of the U-shaped tube system is (note that Iu includes the mass of the fluid in the tube)

The mass flow rate then becomes

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Common Specifications

Common specifications for commercially available Coriolis flowmeters are listed below:

Fluid Phase:

Score     Phase     Condition
Liquid      Clean
Direct Mass
Dirty
Non-Newtonian
Viscous
Slurry      Abrasive
Gas      Clean
Dirty
Liquid      Corrosive
Slurry      Fibrous
: Recommended
: Limited applicability
Line Size:     6 ~ 200 mm (0.25 ~ 8 inch)
Turndown Ratio:     100 : 1

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Pros and Cons

•     Pros:
-     Higher accuracy than most flowmeters
-     Can be used in a wide range of liquid flow conditions
-     Capable of measuring hot (e.g., molten sulphur, liquid toffee) and cold (e.g., cryogenic helium, liquid nitrogen) fluid flow
-     Low pressure drop
-     Suitable for bi-directional flow
•     Cons:
-     High initial set up cost
-     Clogging may occur and difficult to clean
-     Larger in over-all size compared to other flowmeters
-     Limited line size availability

So you want to measure flow? The answer would seem to be to purchase a flowmeter. With fluid flow defined as the amount of fluid that travels past a given location, this would seem to be straightforward — any flowmeter would suffice. However, consider the following equation describing the flow of a fluid in a pipe.

Q = A x v

Q is flow rate, A is the crosssectional area of the pipe, and v is the average fluid velocity in the pipe. Putting this equation into action, the flow of a fluid traveling at an average velocity of a 1 meter per second through a pipe with a 1 square meter cross-sectional area is 1 cubic meter per second. Note that Q is a volume per unit time, so Q is commonly denoted as the “volumetric” flow rate. Now consider the following equation:

W = rho x Q

Where W is flow rate (again - read on), and rho is the fluid density. Putting this equation into action, the flow rate will be 1 kilogram per second when 1 cubic meter per second of a fluid with a density of 1 kilogram per cubic meter is flowing. (The same can be done for the commonly-used “pounds”. Without getting into details — a pound is assumed to be a mass unit.) Note that W is a mass per unit time, so W is commonly denoted as the “mass” flow rate. Now — which flow do you want to measure? Not sure? In some applications, measuring the volumetric flow is the thing to do.

Consider filling a tank. Volumetric flow may be of interest to avoid overflowing a tank where liquids of differing densities can be added. (Then again, a level transmitter and high level switch/shutoff may obviate the need for a flowmeter.) Consider controlling fluid flow into a process that can only accept a limited volume per unit time. Volumetric flow measurement would seem applicable.

In other processes, mass flow is important. Consider chemical reactions where it is desirable to react substances A, B and C. Of interest is the number of molecules present (its mass), not its volume. Similarly, when buying and selling products (custody transfer) the mass is important, not its volume.

Having discovered that there are two types of flow rates (volumetric and mass), it should not be a surprise that some flowmeters measure mass (W) while other flowmeters measure volume (Q). However, it is not quite that simple. Repeating the equations from Part 1 (for convenience), it can be seen that, assuming A is constant, Q can be determined by measuring the average fluid velocity v. Further, assuming that rho is constant, W can be determined from Q.

Q = A x v  W = rho x Q

Summarizing, some flowmeters measure volumetric flow, some flowmeters measure velocity from which the volumetric flow is determined, and some flowmeters measure mass flow. In addition, when the density is known or assumed, mass flow can be determined from the volumetric flow, and the volumetric flow can be determined from the mass flow. So you just wanted to measure flow — did you now? It all seemed so logical and simple at the time. Stick around — it gets worse. Some flowmeters use other principles to infer flow. The most common of these measurements measure the velocity head (1/2 rho v x v) to infer the volumetric flow. Notice that these flowmeters do NOT measure volume, do NOT measure mass, and do NOT measure velocity — but rather measure a combination of density and the square of velocity! Would it surprise you to discover that this is a description of (commonly-applied) head flowmeters, such as orifice plates, venturis, nozzles…? Further, in many applications, the inferred volumetric flow is used to determine the mass flow. Errors can enter the measurement process during each measurement and with each assumption. Is it any surprise that plant engineers often have difficulty closing material balances in their plants?

Summarizing (again), some flowmeters measure volume, some flowmeters measure mass, some flowmeters measure velocity, and some flowmeters measure inferentially. Understand the difference, but also understand that careful attention to detail can result in an inferential measurement that is better than the others.

Volumetric flow is expressed in units that reflect a volume per unit time. The example in Part 1 determines cubic meters and cubic feet per unit time to be volumetric flow units. Gallons and liters per unit time are also volumetric flow units. Mass flow is expressed in units that reflect a mass per unit time. The other example in Part 1 determines kilograms and pounds per unit time to be mass flow units. (Without getting into details — a pound is assumed to be a mass unit.) Note that the units of time are independent of whether volumetric or mass flow is measured.

Let’s have a quiz.
Are the following volumetric or mass liquid flow units?
gallons per minute
cubic feet per second
liters per minute
kilograms per hour
pounds per hour
grams per minute

Can one have a cubic foot of feathers?
yes/no

Can one have a gallon of feathers?
yes/no

Can one have a kilogram of feathers?
yes/no

If you answered volumetric to the first three questions, mass to the next three questions, and yes to the last three questions, you are on track.

Consider purchasing fuel for your car. How does a US gallon of gasoline purchased on a hot summer day in Las Vegas, Arizona compare with a US gallon of gasoline purchased on a cold winter night in Anchorage, Alaska? It was determined that a gallon is a volumetric unit, so logic would indicate that the same volume of gasoline was purchased. Yet the temperature difference would cause their densities, and hence their masses, to be different. Using this logic, more mass would be obtained by purchasing gasoline in colder weather. Thinking locally, one might conclude that it is more economical to purchase gasoline during the wee hours of the morning when the temperature is coldest.

As you might suspect, such is not the case. Gasoline pumps compensate for density variation that occurs due to temperature, and in doing so, they measure the amount (mass) of gasoline dispensed. Yet, a gallon of cold gasoline will occupy less volume than when hot. In essence, the measurement of a gallon of gasoline actually refers to its volume at a given temperature (such as 60 degF). As such, this is really a mass measurement unit because it refers to the flow of a specific substance at a given temperature, Returning to the quiz, let’s not be so hasty with the first three questions. They could be incomplete!
Part 3 discussed the use of volumetric units (such as gallons) to infer mass when the composition and temperature is known. The example given was that of purchasing a gallon of gasoline in a hot and cold climate. The assertion was that a gallon of gasoline purchased in hot and cold climates might have different sizes due to their differing temperatures, but their masses should be the same because the retail flowmeter is temperature compensated.

A number of e-mails questioning this assertion and further investigation resulted in the interesting discovery that retail gasoline flowmeters are not temperature-compensated in the United States, but are temperaturecompensated in Canada. In other words, either the measured volume (in the US) or the measured temperature-corrected volume (in Canada) is used to infer mass.

Consider the following general analysis:

1. Air temperature differences between hot and cold climates are large. In addition, air temperature fluctuations between day and night in a given location can be large.

2. There is a significant difference between ground temperatures in hot and cold climates. However, ground temperature fluctuations between day and night in a given location is very small. Ground temperature fluctuation between summer and winter in a given location is relatively small.

3. Gasoline will be warm when it leaves the refinery, but will cool in transport to the retailer’s underground tank. Given time in the tank, the temperature of the gasoline will approach the ground temperature.

4. Flowmeter calibration is performed using standard weights, implying a calibration to mass.

These statements imply that despite wide air temperature fluctuations, the temperature of the gasoline pumped through the flowmeter should be nearly the same as the ground temperature. Because the ground temperature does not fluctuate very much, the temperature variation of the gasoline will be small throughout the year, so the mass of a gallon of gasoline should not vary much throughout the year from a given tank. Following this logic, the mass of a gallon of gasoline sold in Alaska should be the same as one sold in Nevada.

Fluctuations in gasoline temperature cause gasoline density changes. The magnitude with which these changes affect measurement accuracy can be quantified by performing an uncertainty analysis to determine if temperature compensation is appropriate. An uncertainty analysis for this measurement would likely reveal a number of sources of measurement uncertainty, such as (but not limited to) the effects of ambient air temperature, gasoline temperature leaving the refinery, transport time from the refinery to the tank, ground temperature, tank level prior to filling, the volume of gasoline in the flowmeter piping, flowmeter piping temperature, frequency of use, and composition changes. As a minimum, such analysis would likely reveal that the consumer would not be advised to purchase gasoline from a tank that was just filled with warm gasoline. A detailed analysis may reveal other significant issues.

While this is perhaps more information than one would like to know about the subject, this discussion clearly illustrates the need to understand the process — and that the same process may be different in different locations. Sometimes … it’s just not so easy.

A brief review — Part 3 addressed mass flow measurement, volumetric flow measurement, and inferred mass flow measurement. The measurement of gasoline was given as an example of the inferred mass flow measurement (using volumetric units). Comments resulted in Part 3.1 that addressed some issues associated with retail gasoline measurements. This sparked a flurry of comments regarding how gasoline is measured at the pump. This issue attempts to tie the comments together, so reading this issue without having read previous issues may prove difficult.

Gasoline pumps in the USA measure volume and are calibrated using volumetric means. In other words, they are true volumetric devices — they measure volume and indicate gallons. Even the New York Times offered advice to the consumer on this one with “… buy gasoline during the coolest time of the day — early morning or late evening — while the gasoline is most dense…” (New York Times, September 24, 2001, Empowered II Smart Energy Management, A clean car is an efficient car, page 7).

Gasoline pumps in Canada measure volume. This volume is then compensated for the actual temperature to indicate the volume of the gasoline as if it were a certain temperature. The compensated volume is an implied mass measurement. I suspect (but do not know) that these pumps are calibrated using volumetric means that are temperature compensated. In other words, they are inferred mass measurement devices and are calibrated as such — they measure volume and indicate in (temperature-compensated) liters. In Canada, the inferred mass of the gasoline received should be the same (within the limitations of the equipment) regardless of gasoline temperature. Note however that composition differences (and additives) may cause the density at a given temperature to be different than its nominal value. As an example, a 1% increase in gasoline density from its nominal value does not affect the actual volume measured, but will cause the inferred mass measurement to be 1% lower than the actual mass flow.

My comments on some readers’ responses follow:

One reader questioned whether the “wee hours of the am” would be the time when the gasoline would be at its lowest temperature in an underground tank. Thermal lag for underground gasoline storage tanks is an issue, but may not be significant. For science class, my daughter measured the temperatures 1 meter above and 1 meter below grade in the fall/winter (in the New York area). I seem to remember the ground temperature changing by only 1-2 degC over a period of months. The above ground temperature changed by 20 degC (or more?) during the same period. This issue is likely to be significant for above ground storage tanks (as suggested by other readers). Note however that filling the tank may cause larger (transient) effects caused by such issues as the quantity and temperature of the gasoline prior to fill, and the quantity and temperature of gasoline added. Not being able to sell compressed natural gas measured with a Coriolis mass flowmeter in kg or lbm (pounds mass) because it was not considered ‘marketable’ to the the public illustrates resistance to change. By the way, when will gasoline be sold by the kg or lbm — or better yet, by the BTU or Joule (as suggested by another reader)? I suspect that it will not be soon.

The comments and observations about beating the measurement were amusing. Society allows people to (reasonably) operate in their own self-interest. Parting with less money for a product is clearly in the purchaser’s self-interest. (Engineers sometimes call this an “optimization problem”, but that is an issue for another day.) Comments on how to beat the system were inevitable.

The safety point regarding gasoline expansion causing explosions and fires (after topping off a gas tank in a cold climate and then parking in a warm garage) is important. Virtually everything is potentially dangerous — even a small puddle of water that turns to ice…

Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates (such as litres per second or kg/s). These measurements can be converted between one another if the materials density is known. The density for a liquid is almost independent of the liquids conditions, however this is not the case for a gas, whose density highly depends upon pressure and temperature.

In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol Q and the mass flow rate the symbol \dot m.

[edit] Gas

Due to the nature of an Ideal gas or a Real gas, the volumetric gas flow rate will differ for the same mass flow rate when at differing temperatures and pressures. As such gas volumetric flow rate is sometimes measured in “standard cubic centimeters per minute” (abbreviation sccm). This unit, although not an SI unit is sometimes used due to the additional information attached to the unit symbol, which indicates the temperature and pressure of the gas. Many other similar abbreviations are also in use, for two reasons, firstly mass flow and volumetric flow can be equated at known conditions, and secondly due to the imperial system older units such as standard cubic feet per minute or per second may still be used in some countries. It is often necessary to employ standard gas relationships (such as the ideal gas law) to convert between units of mass flow and volumetric flow.

[edit] Liquid

For liquids other units used depend on the application and industry but might include gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute and, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic metres per second) or acre-feet per day.

[edit] Mechanical flow meters

There are several types of mechanical flow meter

[edit] Piston Meter

Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (1 1/2″). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display is advanced.

[edit] Woltmann Meter

Woltman meters, commonly referred to as Helix meters are popular at larger sizes. Jet meters (single or Multi-Jet) are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the EU.

[edit] Multi-jet Meter

A multi-jet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a paddle wheel meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the circumference of the element, where a paddle wheel normally only receives flow from one offset flow stream.

[edit] Venturi Meter

Another method of measurement, known as a venturi meter, is to constrict the flow in some fashion, and measure the differential pressure (using a pressure sensor) that results across the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times.

[edit] Dall Tube

The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. Both flow meters the flow rate of Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital read out. Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than the orifice meters, the Dall tubes have widely been used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks.

[edit] Orifice Plate

Another simple method of measurement uses an orifice plate, which is basically a plate with a hole through it. It is placed in the flow and constricts the flow. It uses the same principle as the venturi meter in that the differential pressure relates to the velocity of the fluid flow (Bernoulli’s principle).

[edit] Pitot tube

A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by determining the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli’s equation is used to calculate the dynamic pressure and thence fluid velocity.

[edit] Multi-hole Pressure Probe

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three-holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes e.g., five holes arranged in a ‘plus’ formation allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.

[edit] Paddle wheel

The paddle wheel translates the mechanical action of paddles rotating in the liquid flow around an axle into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The paddle tends to be inserted into the flow.

[edit] Pelton wheel

The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focussed on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with “reaction cups” which not only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.

[edit] Optical Flow Meters

Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. If the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as V=D/T where D is the distance between the laser beams and T is the time interval.

Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The different operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in challenging environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.

Optical flow meters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not change, optical flow meters do not require periodic calibration after its initial commissioning. Optical flow meters require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.

Optical flow meters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1m/s to faster than 100m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the measurement of flare gases, a major global contributor to the emissions associated with climate change.[1]

[edit] Turbine flow meter

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.

The turbine wheel is set in the part of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. when a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.

[edit] Open Channel Flow Measurement

[edit] Level to Flow

The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind a hydraulic structure (a weir or flume) using various means (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula of the form Q=KHX where Q is the flow rate, K is a constant, H is the water level and X is an exponent which varies with the device used, or it is converted according to empirically derived level/flow data points (a ‘flow curve’). The flow rate can then integrated over time into volumetric flow.

[edit] Area/Velocity

The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement and the average velocity of the flow is measured directly (doppler and propeller methods are common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow.

[edit] Dye Testing

A known amount of dye per unit time is added to a flow stream. After complete mixing, the concentration of the dye is measured. The dilution rate of the dye equals the flow rate.

[edit] Thermal mass flow meters

Thermal mass flow meters generally use combinations of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow with a knowledge of the fluid’s specific heat and density. The fluid temperature is also measured and compensated for. If the density and specific heat characteristics of the fluid are constant, the meter can provide a direct mass flow readout, and does not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified range.

Technological progress allows today to manufacture thermal mass flow meters on a microscopic scale as MEMS sensors, these flow devices can be used to measure flow rates in the range of nano litres or micro litres per minute.

Thermal mass flow meters are used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and

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Google Chrome shines | Software news, tips and opinions from Download …
Read this blog post by Robert Vamosi on The Daily Download. … Recent posts from The Daily Download. Google backtracks on Chrome license terms …
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Download Google Chrome (Beta)
Here you go, Google Chrome Beta is now released and you can download it here. Enjoy. … TLZ on Download Google Chrome (Beta) TLZ on Internet Explorer 8 (IE8) …
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Posts tagged Google chrome at Download Squad
Download Squad. Web. Send us tips. RSS Feeds. Posts with tag google-chrome … of the Internet, I jumped on the Google Chrome download as soon as it went live. …
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Download Squad: Google
Blog dedicated to the Google search engine. … So keep your eyes on Download Squad or our RSS feed as we jump on the Chrome-caravan! …
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Chrome | Browsers & Clients Download | PC World
Google’s Chrome rethinks the Web browser in ways that make using the Web a more … Google’s Chrome: 7 Reasons for It and 7 Reasons Against It …
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Chrome: Download Google Chrome Now
Google’s new web browser Google Chrome is now available for download Will it dethrone Firefox Will it further crush the … Google Co-Founder Expects Chrome …
gizmodo.com/5044227/download-google-chrome-now
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Google Chrome Screenshot leaked - I4U News
Google Chrome Screenshot leaked. I4U is a Premium Technology Life … Top Story Google Chrome Download available now. News. Shopping Tips. Reviews. Community …
www.i4u.com/article20058.html - Cached

Google’s growing supremacy in several areas of the web, in the advertising market, and in online applications, has already sparked debates about whether Google, originally a search engine specialist, is becoming a monster and whether it is still complying with its company motto (”Don’t be evil”). Some researchers have previously expressed the view that Google needs to be broken up (PDF, Google Dangers Report from Graz University 2007). Tuesday’s release of Google’s new browser, Chrome, has not only fuelled a new dispute about whose web browser is the best but has also triggered discussions about Google’s plans and its dominant position.

Chrome is seen as not just an attack on Microsoft’s leading position on the browser market, though some observers, like Kara Swisher in her web log, and the San Jose Mercury News, are going so far as to speak of a new “browser war”. Google could also be aiming at Microsoft’s dominance on the market for operating systems, says Michael Arrington on the Techcrunch tech blog. Chrome, he says, is significant not only as a competitor to Internet Explorer, but also as a vehicle for Google’s applications. Others have pointedly calling Chrome a “trojan horse browser” since it integrates Google’s other programs, such as Mail, Docs and Spreadsheets as well as Desktop Search, and these run offline using Google Gears, no matter which operating system is in use. Since these Google programs are free of charge, Chrome could give them, and consequently cloud computing, a powerful boost.

But before this can come about, Google would first have to capture a significant share of the web browser market, at least 70 per cent of which, according to various analysts, is in the hands of Microsoft. Fast-reacting web analysts claim to have discovered that the search engine specialist has already achieved some initial success. GetClicky, an American start-up that claims to monitor 45,000 web sites, says Google’s market share is currently just under three per cent. But even if these figures actually reflect reality, it could be because a lot of users are just curious and may return to their existing software. Or they may think that Chrome is, as claimed by Google, more stable, less memory-hungry and faster, and stick with it.

In any case, Citigroup analyst Mark Mahaney sees a demand for a faster, simpler, and more stable browser than Internet Explorer. Whether Chrome is more secure is debatable following the discovery of two vulnerabilities in it. Mahaney points out that 20 per cent of users use Firefox to browse the net. That, he says, is a remarkable phenomenon, given that the Mozilla browser, unlike IE, is not preinstalled on Windows systems. Google also has to overcome this hurdle with Chrome, but, as the Seattle Times points out, it is not subject to antitrust restrictions like Microsoft.

Under an extra-judicial agreement arrived at in 2002 following antitrust proceedings by the US government against Microsoft, the latter is forbidden to reward computer manufacturers financially for installing no browser software apart from Internet Explorer. This provision was to have expired last year but, in January, at the behest of some US states and the federal antitrust enforcement agency, was extended until November 2009. It does not apply to Google, the Seattle Times continues, which can give full vent to its accumulated forces on the computer market – unlike the not exactly well financed Mozilla Foundation, which is for the most part financed by Google – while Microsoft can only influence PC manufacturers indirectly.

The Wall Street Journal reports Doug Anmuth, an analyst at Lehman Brothers, as saying that Google, in distributing Chrome, could exploit public awareness of its brand as well as its various partnerships, and that Google could achieve a 15 to 20 per cent share of the US web browser market within two years. However, Dean Hachamovitch, Microsoft’s general manager for Internet Explorer, is reported in the New York Times as playing this down, saying that Chrome is not the first or the best web browser, only the first from Google. He says the functionality available in the coming Internet Explorer 8, “for what people do every day again and again, is better”. It can’t yet be predicted how, and how fast, the use of Chrome will spread, so the only thing Hachamovitch, or Mozilla CEO John Lilly, can do is point out the advantages of his own business model and his own software.

Others have already suggested that Google would use Chrome to intrude on their privacy. Google has already published details on Chrome’s data protection, perhaps in order to soothe those who, in very recent discussions of Google’s Street View, expressed disquiet about the privacy of internet users and people in general, something Microsoft saw as an opportunity to gather bonus points by claiming to possess far superior data protection. Statements like “no personal information has to be given in order to use and download Google Chrome” are perhaps intended to calm fears, but the browser is preset so that an unique application number, the user’s IP address, and a few cookies are sent to Google. The entries in the address field are also sent to Google, as allowing Google Suggest to offer up suggested websites.

Even when Google insists that it collects no personal data, critical observers go on red alert. A data disaster at AOL, resulting in 20 million search queries by 658,000 of its clients becoming public knowledge, made it clear, if it had not been abundantly clear before then, that directly personal information is not necessarily required in order to draw conclusions about users from the queries they make. On top of that, it has already become obvious that state agencies can also take an interest in data collected from search queries, as was revealed in the USA in early 2006 when the federal authorities demanded that Google hand such data over; Google refused. (jk/c’t)

Gossip Girl’ star Leighton Meester’s mother was in prison when she was born.

The brunette beauty – who plays ‘Park Lane princess’ Blair Waldorf in the hit US TV show – was welcomed into the world while her mother was serving a federal prison sentence in Texas, according to America’s Star magazine.

Leighton’s mother, who gave birth to the actress in April 1986, was permitted to stay in a halfway house for the labour and birth.

She was then forced to return to prison to complete her sentence for her role in a major drug-running ring on the same day Leighton turned three months old.

Leighton was raised by a relative while her mother finished her sentence.

The 22-year-old actress’ father, grandfather and aunt have also reportedly spent time behind bars on charges of drug dealing.

Leighton shot to fame playing bad girl Blair on the TV show, which has been a worldwide hit, and loves starring as such a “conflicted” character.

She said recently: “The show needs to have conflict. If everyone was happy then it would suck. So we have a lot of conflict, believe me. And their conflict is very interesting, because it’s very internal. There are no real outward obstacles. It’s a lot of their own minds colliding with each other.”

World number one Tiger Woods and his wife Elin are expecting their second child to be born in late winter, which could delay the US golf superstar’s return to action from a knee injury.

Woods announced Tuesday on his web site that he and his wife and daughter Sam, who was born in June of last year, were expecting a new addition to the family.

“I have some wonderful news to report. Sam is going to be a big sister,” Woods said on his website. “Elin and I are proud to announce that we are expecting our second child in late winter.”

Woods was not more specific on the arrival date but that should mean the birth will not conflict with any of the 2009 major golf tournaments.

The 14-time major champion, who is now four shy of Jack Nicklaus’ all-time record of 18 major titles, has also not indicated when he might return from knee surgery that forced him to end his 2008 season after winning the US Open in June, limping to victory at Torrey Pines in a playoff over Rocco Mediate.

Woods, an only child who married a Swedish model in 2004, had long said he hoped to have more than one child.

Woods has not given any timetable for his return to the US PGA Tour, but he might now wait until the arrival of his new son or daughter before going back on tour ahead of the Masters next spring, the annual April start to the major golf season.

Even with his golf done for the year, Tiger Woods found something to celebrate Tuesday: His wife is pregnant with their second child.

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Tiger Woods and Family

Jeff Gross/Getty Images

Another addition will be joining daughter Sam in Elin and Tiger Woods’ family in late winter.

Woods said on his Web site that Elin is expecting in late winter without being more specific on a due date.

He has not played since his U.S. Open victory in June, and two weeks later had reconstructive surgery on his left knee that put him out for the year. Woods’ first child, daughter Sam, was born the Monday after the 2007 U.S. Open.

“Elin is feeling great and we are both thrilled,” Woods said. “While my injury has been disappointing and frustrating, it has allowed me to spend a lot of time watching Sam grow. I can’t begin to tell you how rewarding it is being a dad and spending time with her and Elin.

“The injury has been a blessing and a disappointment.”

The world’s No. 1 player has begun rehabilitation and has traveled recently to Dubai and New York for business projects.

Woods had said after he married in 2004 that he wanted more than one child. Woods was an only child, while Elin has a twin sister.

Golf legend Tiger Woods and wife Elin Nordegren are expecting their second child and the baby is due this winter.  The former Swedish model Elin Nordegren is pregnant and she is the latest of the celebrity pregnancies that have included a “Who’s Who” of A-list names like Halle Berry, Angelina Jolie, Jennifer Lopez and Nicole Kidman.  While Elin may not have that “a-list” name (her husband Tiger woods certainly does) got a little bit of the “celebrity” treatment back at the 2006 Ryder Cup.
Tiger Woods’ Wife Elin Nordegren Latest Celebrity Pregnancy
Tiger Woods’ Wife Elin Nordegren Latest Celebrity Pregnancy

An article was published in The Dubliner magazine in September of 2006 when Ireland hosted the Ryder Cup.  A headline from the article described the U.S. golfers’ wives as “Ryder Cup filth” and the story claimed that Woods’ wife “can be found in a variety of sweaty poses on sites across the web.”

***

There were links to photos of a nude blonde woman and even though she looked great (see pictures of the sexy woman here and the first link is safe) it wasn’t Elin Nordegren.  Both Tiger and Elin received a bit of justice when the magazine’s publisher, Trevor White, offered a qualified apology.  White said the article “was written as a satirical piece and in the context of the entire page the publishers believed that readers would not be left thinking that there was any truth in the assertions, it being an absurd parody of the inaccurate tabloid publishing generally. If any contrary impression was given, it certainly does not intend for this, and the publisher unreservedly apologizes.”

They survived the storm of that and now they are looking at baby number two.  Congrats to Tiger Woods and Elin Nordegren on both fronts!
Tiger Woods is the latest celebrity preparing to welcome another baby to the family. Woods announced on his website today that he and his wife Elin Nordegren Woods will have their second child sometime this winter. The latest in a series of celebrity seconds and thirds, Elin Woods’ pregnancy comes on the heels of similar announcements by Ben Affleck and Jennifer Garner, Rebecca Romjin and Jerry O’Connell, and Angie Harmon and Jason Sehorn. Each set of celebrity parents is awaiting the arrival of another little bundle of joy this winter.

Tiger Woods and Elin Nordegren: A Second Little Tiger Cub
According to his website, Elin Nordegren Woods and husband Tiger are preparing to welcome Sam’s little brother or sister sometime this winter. According to Woods’ website, wife Elin and daughter Sam have been blessed with plenty of daddy time lately, as Woods’ reconstructive knee surgery has kept him off the golf circuit recently. The family are expecting their newest member this winter.

Ben Affleck and Jennifer Garner: Violet to be a Big Sister
Affleck and Garner finally announced the impending arrival of their second child recently, after growing speculation about Garner’s bump. Now confirmed by various online sources and US Weekly, fans are excited to watch Violet become a big sister.

Rebecca Romjin and Jerry O’Connell: Welcoming Baby #2…and #1
The couple aren’t expecting a second child, but the pregnancy will end with two little bundles of joy. Rebecca Romjin and Jerry O’Connell are expecting twins sometime before the end of the year. These will be the first children for both Romjin and O’Connell.

Angie Harmon and Jason Sehorn: Baby #3 On the Way!
Good things come in threes for Harmon and Sehorn, who will be expecting their third child sometime this winter. The baby boy or girl is sure to be doted on by his or her two big sisters, as well as mom and dad.
Tiger Wood’s wife, Elin Nordegren is expecting their second child in late winter.

The golf phenom announced Elin’s pregnancy on his official website yesterday. Elin is a 28 year old Swedish model that met Wood’s through Swedish golfer, Jesper Parnevik. She worked with her twin sister as Parnevik’s au paires.

Tiger Woods Wife

Tiger Woods’ wife Elin with daughter Sam.

Woods and Nordegren were married in 2004. Nordegren gave birth to their daughter, Sam Alexis, on June 18, 2007.

Tiger underwent knee surgery shortly after winning the US Open, so this should give himn something else to focus on as he continues to recover. He won’t be playing for the remainder of 2008.