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(IGM)[US GSES AND JAPAN] Seeking to head off any massive offshore unloading …

[US GSES AND JAPAN] Seeking to head off any massive offshore unloading of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac bonds, the US Treasury Department took the unusual step of directly phoning this Thursday, senior executives at major Japanese banks as well as the Life Insurance Association of Japan per a website report in todays Nikkei. According to sources familiar with the matter, the phone calls by US Treasury Undersecretary for International Affairs David McCormick, were to explain Washington’s rescue plans for the US mortgage giants; with Mr McCormick also said to have urged Japanese institutions to continue investing with confidence in the GSEs. Japanese institutions based on data disclosed by domestic banks, life insurers and others as of March 31 are said to own more than 15 trn Yen in Fannie Mae/Freddie Mac securities 01:38 GMT - [DLR/YEN] is off the fixing demand led high of 107.31 to the figure level, but not to the earlier low of 106.88 (dips after the 107.41 peak). As this pair does fall into the deep zone, rebound would thus be limited, and as long as rebound keeps cutting short positions, long positions would not be adjusted forever. Offers are noted at 107.70-80. Bids are placed below 106.50 all way down to/through 106.00.

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(IGM)[EUR/YEN] rose to 150.67 on the WSJ article, eased to 149.65 (governmen…

[EUR/YEN] rose to 150.67 on the WSJ article, eased to 149.65 (government would not be involved), then is up to 150.55 on the WP article along with the fixing demand led [DLR/YEN]’s rise. The pair already fell bout 950 points this week vs about 900 points last week, and is pulling back to the breached 200-week MA (150.19). Tokyo institutions’ managers are telling their traders to square the positions ahead of Tokyo’s long weekend (and of course to prevent unnecessary losses due to news led movements at the thin market ahead of Mon Asian open). However there seems still a sense this pair would eventually rise, so caution to downside would always be needed. The pair again dips through the figure.

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(IGM)The [AUD/USD] had a volatile session since the Australasian session slipping f…

The [AUD/USD] had a volatile session since the Australasian session slipping from an earlier intraday high of 0.8096 where it was sold by macro accounts and a UK Clearer to an intraday low of 0.8007 where specs and investors came in to scoop the pair back to 0.8050 before another sell off to current level of 0.8025. Japanese investors buying the [AUD/JPY] from around the 85.80 level to an intraday high around the 86.60 level also gave the Aud/Usd a prop.

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(IGM)[NZ POLITICS] Prime Minister Helen Clark, seeking to extend her nine years in p…

[NZ POLITICS] Prime Minister Helen Clark, seeking to extend her nine years in power, has called for general elections to be held on November the 8th. Whilst Ms Clark’s ruling Labour party still trails in the opinion polls; her annoucement follows recent opinion surveys which have shown her Labour partys gap behind the opposition National Party, narrowing in to the lowest since March. At the end, its expected to be a tight fight, and could add yet more downside risk to the Kiwi.

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(IGM)[WAMU WOES] are not set to auger well with market sentiment; with Moodys see…

[WAMU WOES] are not set to auger well with market sentiment; with Moodys seen downgrading the unsecured debt of the largest US savings and loan provider by 2 notches, to a below investment “BA2″ grade after Thurs’s closing bell. On top of this, Moodys placed the rating on negative outlook, citing that WAMU’s access to the debt and equity markets remained severely strained. Ironically the downgrade to junk status came just after WAMU announced late on Thurs that it expected capital ratios to remain ’significantly” above requirements for well capitalized institutions. The bank also said it expected its loan loss provision to decline to $4.5 bln in Q3 vs $5.9 bln in the second quarter. The thrift is expected to report its full results on Oct 22nd.

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Google’s growing supremacy in several areas of the web, in the advertising market, and in online applications, has already sparked debates about whether Google, originally a search engine specialist, is becoming a monster and whether it is still complying with its company motto (”Don’t be evil”). Some researchers have previously expressed the view that Google needs to be broken up (PDF, Google Dangers Report from Graz University 2007). Tuesday’s release of Google’s new browser, Chrome, has not only fuelled a new dispute about whose web browser is the best but has also triggered discussions about Google’s plans and its dominant position.

Chrome is seen as not just an attack on Microsoft’s leading position on the browser market, though some observers, like Kara Swisher in her web log, and the San Jose Mercury News, are going so far as to speak of a new “browser war”. Google could also be aiming at Microsoft’s dominance on the market for operating systems, says Michael Arrington on the Techcrunch tech blog. Chrome, he says, is significant not only as a competitor to Internet Explorer, but also as a vehicle for Google’s applications. Others have pointedly calling Chrome a “trojan horse browser” since it integrates Google’s other programs, such as Mail, Docs and Spreadsheets as well as Desktop Search, and these run offline using Google Gears, no matter which operating system is in use. Since these Google programs are free of charge, Chrome could give them, and consequently cloud computing, a powerful boost.

But before this can come about, Google would first have to capture a significant share of the web browser market, at least 70 per cent of which, according to various analysts, is in the hands of Microsoft. Fast-reacting web analysts claim to have discovered that the search engine specialist has already achieved some initial success. GetClicky, an American start-up that claims to monitor 45,000 web sites, says Google’s market share is currently just under three per cent. But even if these figures actually reflect reality, it could be because a lot of users are just curious and may return to their existing software. Or they may think that Chrome is, as claimed by Google, more stable, less memory-hungry and faster, and stick with it.

In any case, Citigroup analyst Mark Mahaney sees a demand for a faster, simpler, and more stable browser than Internet Explorer. Whether Chrome is more secure is debatable following the discovery of two vulnerabilities in it. Mahaney points out that 20 per cent of users use Firefox to browse the net. That, he says, is a remarkable phenomenon, given that the Mozilla browser, unlike IE, is not preinstalled on Windows systems. Google also has to overcome this hurdle with Chrome, but, as the Seattle Times points out, it is not subject to antitrust restrictions like Microsoft.

Under an extra-judicial agreement arrived at in 2002 following antitrust proceedings by the US government against Microsoft, the latter is forbidden to reward computer manufacturers financially for installing no browser software apart from Internet Explorer. This provision was to have expired last year but, in January, at the behest of some US states and the federal antitrust enforcement agency, was extended until November 2009. It does not apply to Google, the Seattle Times continues, which can give full vent to its accumulated forces on the computer market – unlike the not exactly well financed Mozilla Foundation, which is for the most part financed by Google – while Microsoft can only influence PC manufacturers indirectly.

The Wall Street Journal reports Doug Anmuth, an analyst at Lehman Brothers, as saying that Google, in distributing Chrome, could exploit public awareness of its brand as well as its various partnerships, and that Google could achieve a 15 to 20 per cent share of the US web browser market within two years. However, Dean Hachamovitch, Microsoft’s general manager for Internet Explorer, is reported in the New York Times as playing this down, saying that Chrome is not the first or the best web browser, only the first from Google. He says the functionality available in the coming Internet Explorer 8, “for what people do every day again and again, is better”. It can’t yet be predicted how, and how fast, the use of Chrome will spread, so the only thing Hachamovitch, or Mozilla CEO John Lilly, can do is point out the advantages of his own business model and his own software.

Others have already suggested that Google would use Chrome to intrude on their privacy. Google has already published details on Chrome’s data protection, perhaps in order to soothe those who, in very recent discussions of Google’s Street View, expressed disquiet about the privacy of internet users and people in general, something Microsoft saw as an opportunity to gather bonus points by claiming to possess far superior data protection. Statements like “no personal information has to be given in order to use and download Google Chrome” are perhaps intended to calm fears, but the browser is preset so that an unique application number, the user’s IP address, and a few cookies are sent to Google. The entries in the address field are also sent to Google, as allowing Google Suggest to offer up suggested websites.

Even when Google insists that it collects no personal data, critical observers go on red alert. A data disaster at AOL, resulting in 20 million search queries by 658,000 of its clients becoming public knowledge, made it clear, if it had not been abundantly clear before then, that directly personal information is not necessarily required in order to draw conclusions about users from the queries they make. On top of that, it has already become obvious that state agencies can also take an interest in data collected from search queries, as was revealed in the USA in early 2006 when the federal authorities demanded that Google hand such data over; Google refused. (jk/c’t)

Vogue India have divided the fashion world with a recent photoshoot which uses some of the world’s poorest people to model luxury fashion.

The magazine combined the highest fashion and the lowest standard of living to make a bold statement that has led the world to question whether this is a step too far.
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The photoshoot in the October edition features, among other images, a young poverty stricken child wearing a £100 Fendi bib.

Also featured is a poor looking family piled onto a moped driven by the crumpled looking mother who is sporting a Hermes Birkin handbag.

While some media are quick to criticise the exploitation of the plight of the poor to make a fashion statement Vogue India editor Priya Tanna points out in New York Times that the message behind the shoot is “fashion is no longer a rich man’s privilege. Anyone can carry it off and make it look beautiful.”

So what do you think? Should this be taken at face value- is it morally wrong to dress impoverished people in designer clothes they can never afford? Or is it all in the name of making a necesary bold statement that fashion is for everyone?

Everyone asks me what I think of the “new India” now that I’m traveling around the country. My one-word answer would be it’s cold.

I have never been so cold in August in India. It’s actually swelteringly hot outside. In Delhi the parched landscapes of the hi-tech city seem to be gasping for air. In Kolkata it feels like an oven. In Hyderabad the boulder strewn red earth is baking.

But inside every building I go to it’s freezing. The brand new airport in Hyderabad needs a sweater. The malls are chilly. The airplane ride is so bone-chilling I had to dig a long-sleeved shirt out of my suitcase. The glitzy Indian School of Business is actually near Hyderabad but it feels like a Boston winter’s day inside.

Every time I come out of a mall or an office building I feel like I am enveloped in a cloud of condensation. My friend who is a photographer found his lens fogged up when he tried to take pictures. The camera had been sitting in the uber air-conditioned hotel room for two long. We had to sit and wait for it to re-adjust to the warm air outside.

These days in India it is much in vogue to try and find the “real India” versus the “new India.” There is a lot of buzz about the new issue Vogue India where poor Indians are posed against luxury goods. The goods flaunt their brand names such as Burberry and Fendi, the farmers and other Indians are nameless.

Everyone is trying to find the image that juxtaposes the two Indias – the slum next to the gated community in Gurgaon, the poor daily help and her mistress’ BMW, the rickshawpuller near the glam mall.

But I think it’s silly to posit one as the “real” India and one as not. They are both real. One is just air-conditioned. And there’s always a doorway leading from one to the other.

In today’s New York Times there is an article about the debate in India about the controversial spread in Vogue India. The photos are of the poorest of poor in India donned in Gucci, Hermes and Jimmy Choos. Some of the women in the pictures are poor and toothless or of men who don’t have money for shoes but are carrying $200 Burberry umbrellas. The coincidence of poverty and riches is strikingly disturbing yet provocative.

Many have found these pictures upsetting for good reasons. These images of the poor carrying the symbols of the uber-wealthy in a country where more than half the people live on less than a 1.25, are at best callous. I can’t help but agree that these images are indeed vulgar. However, when I read about it and looked at some of the pictures a thought did occur to me. While Vogue India certainly did not intend for this, maybe something good can come out of it.

Maybe it might make people pause for a minute and see the absurdity of a 200 dollar umbrella, or a 400 dollar pair of shoes or 1000 dollar handbags when it is on a person who can’t afford basic dental care, shoes, and lives in deplorable conditions. But who knows? Maybe all it will do is make the rich a little kinder and have them hand their old Gucci hand-bags down to their servants, so they to can walk down the streets of Mumbai in style without shoes and health care. After all, Priya Tanna, Vogue India’s editor does tell us to “Lighten up.”

Fire Protection and Prevention

DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE TO THIS SUBPART - §1926.155

“Approved” means equipment that has been listed or approved by a nationally recognized testing laboratory such as Factory Mutual Engineering Corp., or Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., or Federal agencies such as Bureau of Mines, or U.S. Coast Guard, which issue approvals for such equipment.

“Closed container” means a container so sealed by means of a lid or other device that neither liquid nor vapor will escape from it at ordinary temperatures.

“Combustible liquid” means any liquid having a flash point at or above 140 deg. F (60 deg. C), and below 200 deg. F (93.4 deg. C).

“Combustion” means any chemical process that involves oxidation sufficient to produce light or heat.

“Fire brigade” means an organized group of employees that are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in the safe evacuation of employees during emergency situations and in assisting in fire fighting operations.

“Fire resistance” means so resistant to fire that, for specified time and under conditions of a standard heat intensity, it will not fail structurally and will not permit the side away from the fire to become hotter than a specified temperature. For purposes of this part, fire resistance shall be determined by the Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials, NFPA 251-1969.

“Flammable” means capable of being easily ignited, burning intensely, or having a rapid rate of flame spread.

“Flammable liquid” means any liquid having a flash point below 140 deg. F and having a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 pounds per square inch (absolute) at 100 deg. F.

“Flash point” of the liquid means the temperature at which it gives off vapor sufficient to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the surface of the liquid or within the vessel used as determined by appropriate test procedure and apparatus as specified below.

(1) The flash point of liquids having a viscosity less than 45 Saybolt Universal Second(s) at 100 deg. F (37.8 deg. C) and a flash point below 175 deg. F (79.4 deg. C) shall be determined in accordance with the Standard Method of Test for Flash Point by the Tag Closed Tester, ASTM D-56-69.

(2) The flash point of liquids having a viscosity of 45 Saybolt Universal Second(s) or more at 175 deg. F. (79.4 deg. C) or higher shall be determined in accordance with the Standard Method of Test for Flash Point by the Pensky Martens Closed Tester, ASTM D-93-69.

“Liquefied petroleum gases,” “LPG” and “LP Gas” mean and include any material which is composed predominantly of any of the following hydrocarbons, or mixtures of them, such as propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or iso-butane), and butylenes.

“Portable tank” means a closed container having a liquid capacity more than 60 U.S. gallons, and not intended for fixed installation.

“Safety can” means an approved closed container, of not more than 5 gallons capacity, having a flash-arresting screen, spring-closing lid and spout cover and so designed that it will safely relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire exposure.

“Vapor pressure” means the pressure, measured in pounds per square inch (absolute), exerted by a volatile liquid as determined by the Standard Method of Test for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method), ASTM D-323-58.

FIRE PROTECTION - §1926.150

General Requirements

The employer shall be responsible for the development of a fire protection program to be followed throughout all phases of the construction and demolition work, and shall provide for the firefighting equipment as specified in this subpart. As fire hazards occur, there shall be no delay in providing the necessary equipment.

Access to all available firefighting equipment shall be maintained at all times. All firefighting equipment, provided by the employer, shall be conspicuously located.

All firefighting equipment shall be periodically inspected and maintained in operating condition. Defective equipment shall be immediately replaced.

As warranted by the project, the employer shall provide a trained and equipped firefighting organization (Fire Brigade) to assure adequate protection to life.

Water Supply

A temporary or permanent water supply, of sufficient volume, duration, and pressure, required to properly operate the firefighting equipment shall be made available as soon as combustible materials accumulate.

Where underground water mains are to be provided, they shall be installed, completed, and made available for use as soon as practicable.

Portable Firefighting Equipment

Fire Extinguishers and Small Hose Lines

A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 2A, shall be provided for each 3,000 square feet of the protected building area, or major fraction thereof. Travel distance from any point of the protected area to the nearest fire extinguisher shall not exceed 100 feet.

One 55-gallon open drum of water with two fire pails may be substituted for a fire extinguisher having a 2A rating.

A ½-inch diameter garden-type hose line, not to exceed 100 feet in length and equipped with a nozzle, may be substituted for a 2A-rated fire extinguisher, providing it is capable of discharging a minimum of 5 gallons per minute with a minimum hose stream range of 30 feet horizontally. The garden-type hose lines shall be mounted on conventional racks or reels. The number and location of hose racks or reels shall be such that at least one hose stream can be applied to all points in the area.

One or more fire extinguishers, rated not less than 2A, shall be provided on each floor. In multistory buildings, at least one fire extinguisher shall be located adjacent to stairway.

Extinguishers and water drums, subject to freezing, shall be protected from freezing.

A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 10B, shall be provided within 50 feet of wherever more than 5 gallons of flammable or combustible liquids or 5 pounds of flammable gas are being used on the jobsite. This requirement does not apply to the integral fuel tanks of motor vehicles.

Carbon tetrachloride and other toxic vaporizing liquid fire extinguishers are prohibited.

Portable fire extinguishers shall be inspected periodically and maintained in accordance with Maintenance and Use of Portable Fire Extinguishers, NFPA No. 10A-1970. Fire extinguishers which have been listed or approved by a nationally recognized testing laboratory, shall be used to meet the requirements of this subpart.

Table F-1 in §1926.150(c)(1)(x) may be used as a guide for selecting the appropriate portable fire extinguishers.

Fire Hose and Connections

One hundred feet, or less, of 1½-inch hose, with a nozzle capable of discharging water at 25 gallons or more per minute, may be substituted for a fire extinguisher rated not more than 2A in the designated area provided that the hose line can reach all points in the area.

If fire hose connections are not compatible with local firefighting equipment, the contractor shall provide adapters, or equivalent, to permit connections.

During demolition involving combustible materials, charged hose lines, supplied by hydrants, water tank trucks with pumps, or equivalent, shall be made available.

Fixed Firefighting Equipment

Sprinkler Protection

If the facility being constructed includes the installation of automatic sprinkler protection, the installation shall closely follow the construction and be placed in service as soon as applicable laws permit following completion of each story.

During demolition or alterations, existing automatic sprinkler installations shall be retained in service as long as reasonable. The operation of sprinkler control valves shall be permitted only by properly authorized persons. Modification of sprinkler systems to permit alterations or additional demolition should be expedited so that the automatic protection may be returned to service as quickly as possible. Sprinkler control valves shall be checked daily at close of work to ascertain that the protection is in service.

Standpipes

In all structures in which standpipes are required, or where standpipes exist in structures being altered, they shall be brought up as soon as applicable laws permit, and shall be maintained as construction progresses in such a manner that they are always ready for fire protection use. The standpipes shall be provided with Siamese fire department connections on the outside of the structure, at the street level, which shall be conspicuously marked. There shall be at least one standard hose outlet at each floor.

Fire Alarm Devices

An alarm system, e.g., telephone system, siren, etc., shall be established by the employer whereby employees on the site and the local fire department can be alerted for an emergency. The alarm code and reporting instructions shall be conspicuously posted at phones and at employee entrances.

Fire Cutoffs

Fire walls and exit stairways, required for the completed buildings, shall be given construction priority. Fire doors, with automatic closing devices, shall be hung on openings as soon as practicable.

Fire cutoffs shall be retained in buildings undergoing alterations or demolition until operations necessitate their removal.

FIRE PREVENTION - §1926.151

Ignition Hazards

Electrical wiring and equipment for light, heat, or power purposes shall be installed in compliance with the requirements of Subpart K, Electrical.

Internal combustion engine powered equipment shall be so located that the exhausts are well away from combustible materials. When the exhausts are piped to outside the building under construction, a clearance of at least 6 inches shall be maintained between such piping and combustible material.

Smoking shall be prohibited at or in the vicinity of operations which constitute a fire hazard, and shall be conspicuously posted: “No Smoking or Open Flame.”

Portable battery powered lighting equipment, used in connection with the storage, handling, or use of flammable gases or liquids, shall be of the type approved for the hazardous locations.

The nozzle of air, inert gas, and steam lines or hoses, when used in the cleaning or ventilation of tanks and vessels that contain hazardous concentrations of flammable gases or vapors, shall be bonded to the tank or vessel shell. Bonding devices shall not be attached or detached in hazardous concentrations of flammable gases or vapors.

Temporary Buildings

No temporary building shall be erected where it will adversely affect any means of exit.

Temporary buildings, when located within another building or structure, shall be of either noncombustible construction or of combustible construction having a fire resistance of not less than 1 hour.

Temporary buildings, located other than inside another building and not used for the storage, handling, or use of flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, explosives, or blasting agents, or similar hazardous occupancies, shall be located at a distance of not less than 10 feet from another building or structure. Groups of temporary buildings, not exceeding 2,000 square feet in aggregate, shall, for the purposes of this part, be considered a single temporary building.

Open Yard Storage

Combustible materials shall be piled with due regard to the stability of piles and in no case higher than 20 feet.

Driveways between and around combustible storage piles shall be at least 15 feet wide and maintained free from accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or other articles or materials. Driveways shall be so spaced that a maximum grid system unit of 50 feet by 150 feet is produced.

The entire storage site shall be kept free from accumulation of unnecessary combustible materials. Weeds and grass shall be kept down and a regular procedure provided for the periodic cleanup of the entire area. When there is a danger of an underground fire, that land shall not be used for combustible or flammable storage.

Method of piling shall be solid wherever possible and in orderly and regular piles. No combustible material shall be stored outdoors within 10 feet of a building or structure.

Portable fire extinguishing equipment, suitable for the fire hazard involved, shall be provided at convenient, conspicuously accessible locations in the yard area. Portable fire extinguishers, rated not less than 2A, shall be placed so that maximum travel distance to the nearest unit shall not exceed 100 feet.

Indoor Storage

Storage shall not obstruct, or adversely affect, means of exit. All materials shall be stored, handled, and piled with due regard to their fire characteristics.

Noncompatible materials, which may create a fire hazard, shall be segregated by a barrier having a fire resistance of at least 1 hour.

Material shall be piled to minimize the spread of fire internally and to permit convenient access for firefighting. Stable piling shall be maintained at all times. Aisle space shall be maintained to safely accommodate the widest vehicle that may be used within the building for firefighting purposes.

Clearance of at least 36 inches shall be maintained between the top level of the stored material and the sprinkler deflectors.

Clearance shall be maintained around lights and heating units to prevent ignition of combustible materials.

A clearance of 24 inches shall be maintained around the path of travel of fire doors unless a barricade is provided, in which case no clearance is needed. Material shall not be stored within 36 inches of a fire door opening.

FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS - §1926.152

General Requirements

Only approved containers and portable tanks shall be used for storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids. Approved metal safety cans shall be used for the handling and use of flammable liquids in quantities greater than one gallon, except that this shall not apply to those flammable liquid materials which are highly viscid (extremely hard to pour), which may be used and handled in original shipping containers. For quantities of one gallon or less, only the original container or approved metal safety cans shall be used for storage, use, and handling of flammable liquids.

Flammable or combustible liquids shall not be stored in areas used for exits, stairways, or normally used for the safe passage of people.

Indoor Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

No more than 25 gallons of flammable or combustible liquids shall be stored in a room outside of an approved storage cabinet. For storage of liquefied petroleum gas, see §1926.153.

Quantities of flammable and combustible liquid in excess of 25 gallons shall be stored in an acceptable or approved cabinet meeting the following requirements:

(i) Acceptable wooden storage cabinets shall be constructed in the following manner, or equivalent: The bottom, sides, and top shall be constructed of an exterior grade of plywood at least 1 inch in thickness, which shall not break down or delaminate under standard fire test conditions. All joints shall be rabbeted and shall be fastened in two directions with flathead wood screws. When more than one door is used, there shall be a rabbeted overlap of not less than 1 inch. Steel hinges shall be mounted in such a manner as to not lose their holding capacity due to loosening or burning out of the screws when subjected to fire. Such cabinets shall be painted inside and out with fire retardant paint.

(ii) Approved metal storage cabinets will be acceptable.

(iii) Cabinets shall be labeled in conspicuous lettering, “Flammable-Keep Fire Away.”

Not more than 60 gallons of flammable or 120 gallons of combustible liquids shall be stored in any one storage cabinet. Not more than three such cabinets may be located in a single storage area. Quantities in excess of this shall be stored in an inside storage room.

Inside storage rooms shall be constructed to meet the required fire-resistive rating for their use. Such construction shall comply with the test specifications set forth in Standard Methods of Fire Test of Building Construction and Material, NFPA 251-1969.

Where an automatic extinguishing system is provided, the system shall be designed and installed in an approved manner. Openings to other rooms or buildings shall be provided with noncombustible liquid-tight raised sills or ramps at least 4 inches in height, or the floor in the storage area shall be at least 4 inches below the surrounding floor. Openings shall be provided with approved self-closing fire doors. The room shall be liquid-tight where the walls join the floor. A permissible alternate to the sill or ramp is an open-grated trench, inside of the room, which drains to a safe location. Where other portions of the building or other buildings are exposed, windows shall be protected as set forth in the Standard for Fire Doors and Windows, NFPA No. 80-1970, for Class E or F openings. Wood of at least 1-inch nominal thickness may be used for shelving, racks, dunnage, scuffboards, floor overlay, and similar installations.

Materials which will react with water and create a fire hazard shall not be stored in the same room with flammable or combustible liquids.

Storage in inside storage rooms shall comply with Table F-2:

TABLE F-2
Fire Protection Provided	Fire Resistance	Maximum Size	Total Allowable Quantities (gal./sq. ft. floor area)
Yes	2 hrs.	500 sq. ft.	10
No	2 hrs.	500 sq. ft.	4
Yes	1 hr.	150 sq. ft.	5
No	1 hr.	150 sq. ft.	2

NOTE: Fire protection system shall be sprinkler, water spray, carbon dioxide or other system approved by a nationally recognized testing laboratory for this purpose.

Electrical wiring and equipment located in inside storage rooms shall be approved for Class I, Division 1, Hazardous Locations. For definition of Class I, Division 1, Hazardous Locations, see §1926.449.

Every inside storage room shall be provided with either a gravity or a mechanical exhausting system. Such system shall commence not more than 12 inches above the floor and be designed to provide for a complete change of air within the room at least 6 times per hour. If a mechanical exhausting system is used, it shall be controlled by a switch located outside of the door. The ventilating equipment and any lighting fixtures shall be operated by the same switch. An electric pilot light shall be installed adjacent to the switch if flammable liquids are dispensed within the room. Where gravity ventilation is provided, the fresh air intake, as well as the exhausting outlet from the room, shall be on the exterior of the building in which the room is located.

In every inside storage room there shall be maintained one clear aisle at least 3 feet wide. Containers over 30 gallons capacity shall not be stacked one upon the other.

Flammable and combustible liquids in excess of that permitted in inside storage rooms shall be stored outside of buildings in accordance with paragraph “Storage Outside Buildings” of this section.

The quantity of flammable or combustible liquids kept in the vicinity of spraying operations shall be the minimum required for operations and should ordinarily not exceed a supply for 1 day or one shift. Bulk storage of portable containers of flammable or combustible liquids shall be in a separate, constructed building detached from other important buildings or cut off in a standard manner.

Storage Outside Buildings

Storage of containers (not more than 60 gallons each) shall not exceed 1,100 gallons in any one pile or area. Piles or groups of containers shall be separated by a 5-foot clearance. Piles or groups of containers shall not be nearer than 20 feet to a building.

Within 200 feet of each pile of containers, there shall be a 12-foot-wide access way to permit approach of fire control apparatus.

The storage area shall be graded in a manner to divert possible spills away from buildings or other exposures, or shall be surrounded by a curb or earth dike at least 12 inches high. When curbs or dikes are used, provisions shall be made for draining off accumulations of ground or rain water, or spills of flammable or combustible liquids. Drains shall terminate at a safe location and shall be accessible to operation under fire conditions.

Outdoor portable tank storage:

(i) Portable tanks shall not be nearer than 20 feet from any building. Two or more portable tanks, grouped together, having a combined capacity in excess of 2,200 gallons, shall be separated by a 5-foot-clear area. Individual portable tanks exceeding 1,100 gallons shall be separated by a 5-foot-clear area.

(ii) Within 200 feet of each portable tank, there shall be a 12-foot-wide access way to permit approach of fire control apparatus.

Storage areas shall be kept free of weeds, debris, and other combustible material not necessary to the storage.

Portable tanks, not exceeding 660 gallons, shall be provided with emergency venting and other devices, as required by chapters III and IV of NFPA 30-1969, The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.

Portable tanks, in excess of 660 gallons, shall have emergency venting and other devices, as required by chapters II and III of The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, NFPA 30-1969.

Fire Control for Flammable or Combustible Liquid Storage

At least one portable fire extinguisher, having a rating of not less than 20-B units, shall be located outside of, but not more than 10 feet from, the door opening into any room used for storage of more than 60 gallons of flammable or combustible liquids.

At least one portable fire extinguisher having a rating of not less than 20-B units shall be located not less than 25 feet, nor more than 75 feet, from any flammable liquid storage area located outside.

When sprinklers are provided, they shall be installed in accordance with the Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, NFPA 13-1969.

At least one portable fire extinguisher having a rating of not less than 20-B:C units shall be provided on all tank trucks or other vehicles used for transporting and/or dispensing flammable or combustible liquids.

Dispensing Liquids

Areas in which flammable or combustible liquids are transferred at one time, in quantities greater than 5 gallons from one tank or container to another tank or container, shall be separated from other operations by 25-feet distance or by construction having a fire resistance of at least 1 hour. Drainage or other means shall be provided to control spills. Adequate natural or mechanical ventilation shall be provided to maintain the concentration of flammable vapor at or below 10 percent of the lower flammable limit.

Transfer of flammable liquids from one container to another shall be done only when containers are electrically interconnected (bonded).

Flammable or combustible liquids shall be drawn from or transferred into vessels, containers, or tanks within a building or outside only through a closed piping system, from safety cans, by means of a device drawing through the top, or from a container, or portable tanks, by gravity or pump, through an approved self-closing valve. Transferring by means of air pressure on the container or portable tanks is prohibited.

The dispensing units shall be protected against collision damage. Dispensing devices and nozzles for flammable liquids shall be of an approved type.

Handling Liquids at Point of Final Use

Flammable liquids shall be kept in closed containers when not actually in use.

Leakage or spillage of flammable or combustible liquids shall be disposed of promptly and safely.

Flammable liquids may be used only where there are no open flames or other sources of ignition within 50 feet of the operation, unless conditions warrant greater clearance.

Service and Refueling Areas

Flammable or combustible liquids shall be stored in approved closed containers, in tanks located underground, or in aboveground portable tanks.

The tank trucks shall comply with the requirements covered in the Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and Combustible Liquids, NFPA No. 385-1966.

The dispensing hose shall be an approved type, and the dispensing nozzle shall be an approved automatic-closing type without a latch-open device.

Underground tanks shall not be abandoned.

Clearly identified and easily accessible switch(es) shall be provided at a location remote from dispensing devices to shut off the power to all dispensing devices in the event of an emergency.

Heating equipment of an approved type may be installed in the lubrication or service area where there is no dispensing or transferring of flammable liquids, provided the bottom of the heating unit is at least 18 inches above the floor and is protected from physical damage.

Heating equipment installed in lubrication or service areas, where flammable liquids are dispensed, shall be of an approved type for garages, and shall be installed at least 8 feet above the floor.

There shall be no smoking or open flames in the areas used for fueling, servicing fuel systems for internal combustion engines, receiving or dispensing of flammable or combustible liquids. Conspicuous and legible signs prohibiting smoking shall be posted.

The motors of all equipment being fueled shall be shut off during the fueling operation.

Each service or fueling area shall be provided with at least one fire extinguisher having a rating of not less than 20-B:C located so that an extinguisher will be within 75 feet of each pump, dispenser, underground fill pipe opening, and lubrication or service area.

Scope

This section applies to the handling, storage, and use of flammable and combustible liquids with a flashpoint below 200 deg. F (93.33 deg. C). This section does not apply to: (1) Bulk transportation of flammable and combustible liquids; and (2) Storage, handling, and use of fuel oil tanks and containers connected with oil burning equipment.

Tank Storage

Refer to §1926.152(i) for design, construction, and installation requirements for flammable or combustible liquid storage tanks.

Piping, Valves, and Fittings

Refer to §1926.152(j) for design, fabrication, assembly, test, and inspection requirements for piping systems containing flammable or combustible liquids.

Marine Service Stations

Refer to §1926.152(k) for dispensing, tanks and pumps, and piping service stations where flammable or combustible liquids used as fuels are stored and dispensed.

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LP-GAS) - §1926.153

Approval of Equipment and Systems

Each system shall have containers, valves, connectors, manifold valve assemblies, and regulators of an approved type.

All cylinders shall meet the Department of Transportation specification identification requirements published in 49 CFR Part 178, Shipping Container Specifications.

As used in this section, “Containers” are defined as all vessels, such as tanks, cylinders, or drums, used for transportation or storing liquefied petroleum gases.

Welding on LP-Gas Containers

Welding is prohibited on containers.

Container Valves and Container Accessories

Valves, fittings, and accessories connected directly to the container, including primary shut off valves, shall have a rated working pressure of at least 250 p.s.i.g. and shall be of material and design suitable for LP-Gas service.

Connections to containers, except safety relief connections, liquid level gauging devices, and plugged openings, shall have shutoff valves located as close to the container as practicable.

Safety Devices

Every container and every vaporizer shall be provided with one or more approved safety relief valves or devices. These valves shall be arranged to afford free vent to the outer air with discharge not less than 5 feet horizontally away from any opening into a building which is below such discharge.

Shutoff valves shall not be installed between the safety relief device and the container, or the equipment or piping to which the safety relief device is connected, except that a shutoff valve may be used where the arrangement of this valve is such that full required capacity flow through the safety relief device is always afforded.

Container safety relief devices and regulator relief vents shall be located not less than 5 feet in any direction from air openings into sealed combustion system appliances or mechanical ventilation air intakes.

Dispensing

Filling of fuel containers for trucks or motor vehicles from bulk storage containers shall be performed not less than 10 feet from the nearest masonry-walled building, or not less than 25 feet from the nearest building or other construction and, in any event, not less than 25 feet from any building opening.

Filling of portable containers or containers mounted on skids from storage containers shall be performed not less than 50 feet from the nearest building.

Requirements for Appliances

Any appliance that was originally manufactured for operation with a gaseous fuel other than LP-Gas, and is in good condition, may be used with LP-Gas only after it is properly converted, adapted, and tested for performance with LP-Gas before the appliance is placed in use.

Containers shall be upright upon firm foundations or otherwise firmly secured. The possible effect on the outlet piping of settling shall be guarded against by a flexible connection or special fitting.

Containers and Equipment Used Inside of Buildings or Structures

When operational requirements make portable use of containers necessary, and their location outside of buildings or structures is impracticable, containers and equipment shall be permitted to be used inside of buildings or structures in accordance with paragraphs (h)(2) through (11) of this section.

“Containers in use” means connected for use.

Systems utilizing containers having a water capacity greater than 2½ pounds (nominal 1 pound LP-Gas capacity) shall be equipped with excess flow valves. Such excess flow valves shall be either integral with the container valves or in the connections to the container valve outlets.

Regulators shall be either directly connected to the container valves or to manifolds connected to the container valves. The regulator shall be suitable for use with LP-Gas. Manifolds and fittings connecting containers to pressure regulator inlets shall be designed for at least 250 p.s.i.g. service pressure.

Valves on containers having water capacity greater than 50 pounds (nominal 20 pounds LP-Gas capacity) shall be protected from damage while in use or storage.

Aluminum piping or tubing shall not be used.

Hose shall be designed for a working pressure of at least 250 p.s.i.g. Design, construction, and performance of hose, and hose connections shall have their suitability determined by listing by a nationally recognized testing agency. The hose length shall be as short as practicable. Hoses shall be long enough to permit compliance with spacing provisions of paragraphs (h)(1) through (13) of this section, without kinking or straining, or causing hose to be so close to a burner as to be damaged by heat.

Portable heaters, including salamanders, shall be equipped with an approved automatic device to shut off the flow of gas to the main burner, and pilot if used, in the event of flame failure. Such heaters, having inputs above 50,000 B.t.u. per hour, shall be equipped with either a pilot, which must be lighted and proved before the main burner can be turned on, or an electrical ignition system.

NOTE: The provisions of this subparagraph do not apply to portable heaters under 7,500 B.t.u. per hour input when used with containers having a maximum water capacity of 2½ pounds.

Container valves, connectors, regulators, manifolds, piping, and tubing shall not be used as structural supports for heaters.

Containers, regulating equipment, manifolds, pipe, tubing, and hose shall be located to minimize exposure to high temperatures or physical damage.

Containers having a water capacity greater than 2½ pounds (nominal 1 pound LP-Gas capacity) connected for use shall stand on a firm and substantially level surface and, when necessary, shall be secured in an upright position.

The maximum water capacity of individual containers shall be 245 pounds (nominal 100 pounds LP-Gas capacity).

For temporary heating, heaters (other than integral heater-container units) shall be located at least 6 feet from any LP-Gas container. This shall not prohibit the use of heaters specifically designed for attachment to the container or to a supporting standard, provided they are designed and installed so as to prevent direct or radiant heat application from the heater onto the containers. Blower and radiant type heaters shall not be directed toward any LP-Gas container within 20 feet.

If two or more heater-container units, of either the integral or nonintegral type, are located in an unpartitioned area on the same floor, the container or containers of each unit shall be separated from the container or containers of any other unit by at least 20 feet.

When heaters are connected to containers for use in an unpartitioned area on the same floor, the total water capacity of containers, manifolded together for connection to a heater or heaters, shall not be greater than 735 pounds (nominal 300 pounds LP-Gas capacity). Such manifolds shall be separated by at least 20 feet.

Storage of containers awaiting use shall be in accordance with paragraphs (j) and (k) of this section.

Multiple Container Systems

Valves in the assembly of multiple container systems shall be arranged so that replacement of containers can be made without shutting off the flow of gas in the system. This provision is not to be construed as requiring an automatic changeover device.

Heaters shall be equipped with an approved regulator in the supply line between the fuel cylinder and the heater unit. Cylinder connectors shall be provided with an excess flow valve to minimize the flow of gas in the event the fuel line becomes ruptured.

Regulators and low-pressure relief devices shall be rigidly attached to the cylinder valves, cylinders, supporting standards, the building walls, or otherwise rigidly secured, and shall be so installed or protected from the elements.

Storage of LPG Containers

Storage of LPG within buildings is prohibited.

Storage Outside of Buildings

Storage outside of buildings, for containers awaiting use, shall be located from the nearest building or group of buildings, in accordance with the following:

TABLE F-3
Quantity of LP-Gas Stored	Distance (feet)
500 lbs. or less	0
501 to 6,000 lbs.	10
6,001 to 10,000 lbs.	20
Over 10,000 lbs	25

Containers shall be in a suitable ventilated enclosure or otherwise protected against tampering.

Fire Protection

Storage locations shall be provided with at least one approved portable fire extinguisher having a rating of not less than 20-B:C.

Systems Utilizing Containers Other Than DOT Containers

This paragraph applies specifically to systems utilizing storage containers other than those constructed in accordance with DOT specifications. Paragraph (b) of this section applies to this paragraph unless otherwise noted in paragraph (b) of this section.

Storage containers shall be designed and classified in accordance with Table F-31 of §1926.153(m)(2).

Containers with foundations attached (portable or semiportable containers with suitable steel “runners” or “skids” and popularly known in the industry as “skid tanks”) shall be designed, installed, and used in accordance with these rules subject to the following provisions:

(i) If they are to be used at a given general location for a temporary period not to exceed 6 months they need not have fire-resisting foundations or saddles but shall have adequate ferrous metal supports.

(ii) They shall not be located with the outside bottom of the container shell more than 5 feet (1.52 m) above the surface of the ground unless fire-resisting supports are provided.

(iii) The bottom of the skids shall not be less than 2 inches (5.08 cm) or more than 12 inches (30.48 cm) below the outside bottom of the container shell.

(iv) Flanges, nozzles, valves, fittings, and the like, having communication with the interior of the container, shall be protected against physical damage.

(v) When not permanently located on fire-resisting foundations, piping connections shall be sufficiently flexible to minimize the possibility of breakage or leakage of connections if the container settles, moves, or is otherwise displaced.

(vi) Skids, or lugs for attachment of skids, shall be secured to the container in accordance with the code or rules under which the container is designed and built (with a minimum factor of safety of four) to withstand loading in any direction equal to four times the weight of the container and attachments when filled to the maximum permissible loaded weight.

Field welding where necessary shall be made only on saddle plates or brackets which were applied by the manufacturer of the tank.

Marking of Gas Cylinders

When LP-Gas and one or more other gases are stored or used in the same area, the containers shall be marked to identify their content. Marking shall be in compliance with American National Standard Z48.1-1954, Method of Marking Portable Compressed Gas Containers To Identify the Material Contained.

Damage From Vehicles

When damage to LP-Gas systems from vehicular traffic is a possibility, precautions against such damage shall be taken.

TEMPORARY HEATING DEVICES - §1926.154

Ventilation

Fresh air shall be supplied in sufficient quantities to maintain the health and safety of workers. Where natural means of fresh air supply is inadequate, mechanical ventilation shall be provided.

When heaters are used in confined spaces, special care shall be taken to provide sufficient ventilation in order to ensure proper combustion, maintain the health and safety of workers, and limit temperature rise in the area.

Clearance and Mounting

Temporary heating devices shall be installed to provide clearance to combustible material not less than the amount shown in Table F-4 in §1926.154(b)(1).

Temporary heating devices, which are listed for installation with lesser clearances than specified in Table F-4, may be installed in accordance with their approval.

Heaters not suitable for use on wood floors shall not be set directly upon them or other combustible materials. When such heaters are used, they shall rest on suitable heat insulating material or at least 1-inch concrete, or equivalent. The insulating material shall extend beyond the heater 2 feet or more in all directions.

Heaters used in the vicinity of combustible tarpaulins, canvas, or similar coverings shall be located at least 10 feet from the coverings. The coverings shall be securely fastened to prevent ignition or upsetting of the heater due to wind action on the covering or other material.

Stability

Heaters, when in use, shall be set horizontally level, unless otherwise permitted by the manufacturer’s markings.

Solid Fuel Salamanders

Solid fuel salamanders are prohibited in buildings and on scaffolds.

Oil-Fired Heaters

Flammable liquid-fired heaters shall be equipped with a primary safety control to stop the flow of fuel in the event of flame failure. Barometric or gravity oil feed shall not be considered a primary safety control.

Heaters designed for barometric or gravity oil feed shall be used only with the integral tanks.

Heaters specifically designed and approved for use with separate supply tanks may be directly connected for gravity feed, or an automatic pump, from a supply tank.

1: Fire Growth and Behavior
Before attempting to understand fire detection systems and automatic sprinklers, it is beneficial to possess a basic knowledge of fire development and behavior. With this information, the role and interaction of these supplemental fire safety systems in the protection process can then be better realized.

Basically, a fire is a chemical reaction in which a carbon based material (fuel), mixes with oxygen (usually as a component of air), and is heated to a point where flammable vapors are produced. These vapors can then come in contact with something that is hot enough to cause vapor ignition, and a resulting fire. In simple terms, something that can burn touches something that is hot, and a fire is produced.

Libraries, archives, museums, and historic structures frequently contain numerous fuels. These include books, manuscripts, records, artifacts, combustible interior finishes, cabinets, furnishings, and laboratory chemicals. It should be recognized that any item containing wood, plastic, paper, fabric, or combustible liquids is a potential fuel. They also contain several common, potential ignition sources including any item, action, or process which produces heat. These encompass electric lighting and power systems, heating and air conditioning equipment, heat producing conservation and maintenance activities, and electric office appliance. Flame generating construction activities such as soldering, brazing, and cutting are frequent sources of ignition. Arson is unfortunately one of the most common cultural property ignition sources, and must always be considered in fire safety planning.

When the ignition source contacts the fuel, a fire can start. Following this contact, the typical accidental fire begins as a slow growth, smoldering process which may last from a few minutes to several hours. The duration of this “incipient” period is dependent on a variety of factors including fuel type, its physical arrangement, and quantity of available oxygen. During this period heat generation increases, producing light to moderate volumes of smoke. The characteristic smell of smoke is usually the first indication that an incipient fire is underway. It is during this stage that early detection (either human or automatic), followed by a timely response by qualified fire emergency professionals, can control the fire before significant losses occur.

As the fire reaches the end of the incipient period, there is usually enough heat generation to permit the onset of open, visible flames. Once flames have appeared, the fire changes from a relatively minor situation to a serious event with rapid flame and heat growth. Ceiling temperatures can exceed 1,000° C (1,800° F) within the first minutes. These flames can ignite adjacent combustible contents within the room, and immediately endanger the lives of the room’s occupants. Within 3-5 minutes, the room ceiling acts like a broiler, raising temperatures high enough to “flash”, which simultaneously ignites all combustibles in the room. At this point, most contents will be destroyed and human survivability becomes impossible. Smoke generation in excess of several thousand cubic meters (feet) per minute will occur, obscuring visibility and impacting contents remote from the fire.

If the building is structurally sound, heat and flames will likely consume all remaining combustibles and then self extinguish (burn out). However, if wall and/or ceiling fire resistance is inadequate, (i.e. open doors, wall/ceiling breaches, combustible building construction), the fire can spread into adjacent spaces, and start the process over. If the fire remains uncontrolled, complete destruction or “burn out” of the entire building and contents may ultimately result.

Successful fire suppression is dependent on extinguishing flames before, or immediately upon, flaming combustion. Otherwise, the resulting damage may be too severe to recover from. During the incipient period, a trained person with portable fire extinguishers may be an effective first line of defense. However, should an immediate response fail or the fire grow rapidly, extinguisher capabilities can be surpassed within the first minute. More powerful suppression methods, either fire department hoses or automatic systems, then become essential.

A fire can have far reaching impact on the institution’s buildings, contents and mission. General consequences may include:

* Collections damage. Most heritage institutions house unique and irreplaceable objects. Fire generated heat and smoke can severely damage or totally destroy these items beyond repair.

* Operations and mission damage. Heritage occupancies often contain educational facilities, conservation laboratories, catalogue services, administrative/support staff offices, exhibition production, retail, food service, and a host of other activities. A fire can shut these down with adverse impact on the organization’s mission and its clientele.

* Structure damage. Buildings provide the “shell” that safeguards collections, operations and occupants from weather, pollution, vandalism and numerous other environmental elements. A fire can destroy walls, floors, ceiling/roof assemblies and structural support, as well as systems that illuminate, control temperature and humidity, and supply electrical power. This can in turn lead to content harm, and expensive relocation activities.

* Knowledge loss. Books, manuscripts, photographs, films, recordings and other archival collections contain a vast wealth of information that can be destroyed by fire.

* Injury or loss of life. The lives of staff and visitors can be endangered.

* Public relations impact. Staff and visitors expect safe conditions in heritage buildings. Those who donate or loan collections presume these items will be safeguarded. A severe fire could shake public confidence and cause a devastating public relations impact.

* Building security. A fire represents the single greatest security threat! Given the same amount of time, an accidental or intentionally set fire can cause far greater harm to collections than the most accomplished thieves. Immense volumes of smoke and toxic gases can cause confusion and panic, thereby creating the ideal opportunity for unlawful entry and theft. Unrestricted firefighting operations will be necessary, adding to the security risk. Arson fires set to conceal a crime are common.

To minimize fire risk and its impact, heritage institutions should develop and implement comprehensive and objective fire protection programs. Program elements should include fire prevention efforts, building construction improvements, methods to detect a developing fire and alert emergency personnel, and means to effectively extinguish a fire. Each component is important toward overall accomplishment of the institution’s fire safety goal. It is important for management to outline desired protection objectives during a fire and establish a program that addresses these goals. Therefore, the basic question to be asked by the property’s managers is, “What maximum fire size and loss can the institution accept?” With this information, goal oriented protection can be implemented.

2: Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
2.1: Introduction
A key aspect of fire protection is to identify a developing fire emergency in a timely manner, and to alert the building’s occupants and fire emergency organizations. This is the role of fire detection and alarm systems. Depending on the anticipated fire scenario, building and use type, number and type of occupants, and criticality of contents and mission, these systems can provide several main functions. First they provide a means to identify a developing fire through either manual or automatic methods and second, they alert building occupants to a fire condition and the need to evacuate. Another common function is the transmission of an alarm notification signal to the fire department or other emergency response organization. They may also shut down electrical, air handling equipment or special process operations, and they may be used to initiate automatic suppression systems. This section will describe the basic aspects of fire detection and alarm systems.

2.2: Control Panels
The control panel is the “brain” of the fire detection and alarm system. It is responsible for monitoring the various alarm “input” devices such as manual and automatic detection components, and then activating alarm “output” devices such as horns, bells, warning lights, emergency telephone dialers, and building controls. Control panels may range from simple units with a single input and output zone, to complex computer driven systems that monitor several buildings over an entire campus. There are two main control panel arrangements, conventional and addressable, which will be discussed below.

Conventional or “point wired” fire detection and alarm systems were for many years the standard method for providing emergency signaling. In a conventional system one or more circuits are routed through the protected space or building. Along each circuit, one or more detection devices are placed. Selection and placement of these detectors is dependent upon a variety of factors including the need for automatic or manual initiation, ambient temperature and environmental conditions, the anticipated type of fire, and the desired speed of response. One or more device types are commonly located along a circuit to address a variety of needs and concerns.

Upon fire occurrence, one or more detectors will operate. This action closes the circuit, which the fire control panel recognizes as an emergency condition. The panel will then activate one or more signaling circuits to sound building alarms and summon emergency help. The panel may also send the signal to another alarm panel so that it can be monitored from a remote point.

In order to help insure that the system is functioning properly, these systems monitor the condition of each circuit by sending a small current through the wires. Should a fault occur, such as due to a wiring break, this current cannot proceed and is registered as a “trouble” condition. The indication is a need for service somewhere along the respective circuit.

In a conventional alarm system, all alarm initiating and signaling is accomplished by the system’s hardware which includes multiple sets of wire, various closing and opening relays, and assorted diodes. Because of this arrangement, these systems are actually monitoring and controlling circuits, and not individual devices.

To further explain this, assume that a building’s fire alarm system has 5 circuits, zones A through E, and that each circuit has 10 smoke detectors and 2 manual stations located in various rooms of each zone. A fire ignition in one of the rooms monitored by zone “A” causes a smoke detector to go into alarm. This will be reported by the fire alarm control panel as a fire in circuit or zone “A”. It will not indicate the specific detector type nor location within this zone. Emergency responding personnel may need to search the entire zone to determine where the device is reporting a fire. Where zones have several rooms, or concealed spaces, this response can be time consuming and wasteful of valuable response opportunity.

The advantage of conventional systems is that they are relatively simple for small to intermediate size buildings. Servicing does not require a large amount of specialized training.

A disadvantage is that for large buildings, they can be expensive to install because of the extensive amounts of wire that are necessary to accurately monitor initiating devices.

Conventional systems may also be inherently labor intensive and expensive to maintain. Each detection device may require some form of operational test to verify it is in working condition. Smoke detectors must be periodically removed, cleaned, and recalibrated to prevent improper operation. With a conventional system, there is no accurate way of determining which detectors are in need of servicing. Consequently, each detector must be removed and serviced, which can be a time consuming, labor intensive, and costly endeavor. If a fault occurs, the “trouble” indication only states that the circuit has failed, but does not specifically state where the problem is occurring. Subsequently, technicians must survey the entire circuit to identify the problem.

Addressable or “intelligent” systems represent the current state-of-the-art in fire detection and alarm technology. Unlike conventional alarm methods, these systems monitor and control the capabilities of each alarm initiating and signaling device through microprocessors and system software. In effect, each intelligent fire alarm system is a small computer overseeing and operating a series of input and output devices.

Like a conventional system, the address system consists of one or more circuits that radiate throughout the space or building. Also, like standard systems, one or more alarm initiating devices may be located along these circuits. The major difference between system types involves the way in which each device is monitored. In an addressable system, each initiating device (automatic detector, manual station, sprinkler waterflow switch, etc.) is given a specific identification or “address”. This address is correspondingly programmed into the control panel’s memory with information such as the type of device, its location, and specific response details such as which alarm devices are to be activated.

The control panel’s microprocessor sends a constant interrogation signal over each circuit, in which each initiating device is contacted to inquire its status (normal or emergency). This active monitoring process occurs in rapid succession, providing system updates every 5 to 10 seconds.

The addressable system also monitors the condition of each circuit, identifying any faults which may occur. One of the advancements offered by these systems is their ability to specifically identify where a fault has developed. Therefore, instead of merely showing a fault along a wire, they will indicate the location of the problem. This permits faster diagnosis of the trouble, and allows a quicker repair and return to normal.

Advantages provided by addressable alarm systems include stability, enhanced maintenance, and ease of modification. Stability is achieved by the system software. If a detector recognizes a condition which could be indicative of a fire, the control panel will first attempt a quick reset. For most spurious situations such as insects, dust, or breezes, the incident will often remedy itself during this reset procedure, thereby reducing the probability of false alarm. If a genuine smoke or fire condition exists, the detector will reenter the alarm mode immediately after the reset attempt. The control panel will now regard this as a fire condition, and will enter its alarm mode.

With respect to maintenance, these systems offer several key advantages over conventional ones. First of all, they are able to monitor the status of each detector. As a detector becomes dirty, the microprocessor recognizes a decreased capability, and provides a maintenance alert. This feature, known as Listed Integral Sensitivity Testing, allows facilities personnel to service only those detectors that need attention, rather than requiring a labor and time consuming cleaning of all units.

Advanced systems, such as the FCI 7200 incorporate another maintenance feature known as drift compensation. This software procedure adjusts the detector’s sensitivity to compensate for minor dust conditions. This avoids the ultra sensitive or “hot” detector condition which often results as debris obscures the detector’s optics. When the detector has been compensated to its limit, the control panel alerts maintenance personnel so that servicing can be performed.

Modifying these systems, such as to add or delete a detector, involves connecting or removing the respective device from the addressable circuit, and changing the appropriate memory section. This memory change is accomplished either at the panel or on a personal computer, with the information downloaded into the panel’s microprocessor.

The main disadvantage of addressable systems is that each system has its own unique operating characteristics. Therefore, service technicians must be trained for the respective system. The training program is usually a 3-4 day course at the respective manufacturer’s facility. Periodic update training may be necessary as new service methods are developed.

2.3: Fire Detectors
When present, humans can be excellent fire detectors. The healthy person is able to sense multiple aspects of a fire including the heat, flames, smoke, and odors. For this reason, most fire alarm systems are designed with one or more manual alarm activation devices to be used by the person who discovers a fire. Unfortunately, a person can also be an unreliable detection method since they may not be present when a fire starts, may not raise an alarm in an effective manner, or may not be in perfect heath to recognize fire signatures. It is for this reason that a variety of automatic fire detectors have been developed. Automatic detectors are meant to imitate one or more of the human senses of touch, smell or sight. Thermal detectors are similar to our ability to identify high temperatures, smoke detectors replicate the sense of smell, and flame detectors are electronic eyes. The properly selected and installed automatic detector can be a highly reliable fire sensor.

Manual fire detection is the oldest method of detection. In the simplest form, a person yelling can provide fire warning. In buildings, however, a person’s voice may not always transmit throughout the structure. For this reason, manual alarm stations are installed. The general design philosophy is to place stations within reach along paths of escape. It is for this reason that they can usually be found near exit doors in corridors and large rooms.

The advantage of manual alarm stations is that, upon discovering the fire, they provide occupants with a readily identifiable means to activate the building fire alarm system. The alarm system can then serve in lieu of the shouting person’s voice. They are simple devices, and can be highly reliable when the building is occupied. The key disadvantage of manual stations is that they will not work when the building is unoccupied. They may also be used for malicious alarm activations. Nonetheless, they are an important component in any fire alarm system.

Thermal detectors are the oldest type of automatic detection device, having origin in the mid 1800’s, with several styles still in production today. The most common units are fixed temperature devices that operate when the room reaches a predetermined temperature (usually in the 135°-165°F/57°-74°C). The second most common type of thermal sensor is the rate-of-rise detector, which identifies an abnormally fast temperature climb over a short time period. Both of these units are “spot type” detectors, which means that they are periodically spaced along a ceiling or high on a wall. The third detector type is the fixed temperature line type detector, which consists of two cables and an insulated sheathing that is designed to breakdown when exposed to heat. The advantage of line type over spot detection is that thermal sensing density can be increased at lower cost.

Thermal detectors are highly reliable and have good resistance to operation from nonhostile sources. They are also very easy and inexpensive to maintain. On the down side, they do not function until room temperatures have reached a substantial temperature, at which point the fire is well underway and damage is growing exponentially. Subsequently, thermal detectors are usually not permitted in life safety applications. They are also not recommended in locations where there is a desire to identify a fire before substantial flames occur, such as spaces where high value thermal sensitive contents are housed.

Smoke detectors are a much newer technology, having gained wide usage during the 1970’s and 1980’s in residential and life safety applications. As the name implies, these devices are designed to identify a fire while in its smoldering or early flame stages, replicating the human sense of smell. The most common smoke detectors are spot type units, that are placed along ceilings or high on walls in a manner similar to spot thermal units. They operate on either an ionization or photoelectric principle, with each type having advantages in different applications. For large open spaces such as galleries and atria, a frequently used smoke detector is a projected beam unit. This detector consists of two components, a light transmitter and a receiver, that are mounted at some distance (up to 300 ft/100m) apart. As smoke migrates between the two components, the transmitted light beam becomes obstructed and the receiver is no longer able to see the full beam intensity. This is interpreted as a smoke condition, and the alarm activation signal is transmitted to the fire alarm panel.

A third type of smoke detector, which has become widely used in extremely sensitive applications, is the air aspirating system. This device consists of two main components: a cotrol unit that houses the detection chamber, an aspiration fan and operation circuitry; and a network of sampling tubes or pipes. Along the pipes are a series of ports that are designed to permit air to enter the tubes and be transported to the detector. Under normal conditions, the detector constantly draws an air sample into the detection chamber, via the pipe network. The sample is analyzed for the existence of smoke, and then returned to atmosphere. If smoke becomes present in the sample, it is detected and an alarm signal is transmitted to the main fire alarm control panel. Air aspirating detectors are extremely sensitive and are typically the fastest responding automatic detection method. Many high technology organizations, such as telephone companies, have standardized on aspiration systems. In cultural properties they are used for areas such as collections storage vaults and highly valuable rooms. These are also frequently used in aesthetically sensitive applications since components are often easier to conceal, when compared to other detection methods.

The key advantage of smoke detectors is their ability to identify a fire while it is still in its incipient. As such, they provide added opportunity for emergency personnel to respond and control the developing fire before severe damage occurs. They are usually the preferred detection method in life safety and high content value applications. The disadvantage of smoke detectors is that they are usually more expensive to install, when compared to thermal sensors, and are more resistant to inadvertent alarms. However, when properly selected and designed, they can be highly reliable with a very low probability of false alarm.

Flame detectors represent the third major type of automatic detection method, and imitate the human sense of sight. They are line of sight devices that operate on either an infrared, ultraviolet or combination principle. As radiant energy in the approximate 4,000 to 7,700 angstroms range occurs, as indicative of a flaming condition, their sensing equipment recognizes the fire signature and sends a signal to the fire alarm panel.

The advantage of flame detection is that it is extremely reliable in a hostile environment. They are usually used in high value energy and transportation applications where other detectors would be subject to spurious activation. Common uses include locomotive and aircraft maintenance facilities, refineries and fuel loading platforms, and mines. A disadvantage is that they can be very expensive and labor intensive to maintain. Flame detectors must be looking directly at the fire source, unlike thermal and smoke detectors which can identify migrating fire signatures. Their use in cultural properties is extremely limited.

2.4: Alarm Output Devices
Upon receiving an alarm notification, the fire alarm control panel must now tell someone that an emergency is underway. This is the primary function of the alarm output aspect of a system. Occupant signaling components include various audible and visual alerting components, and are the primary alarm output devices. Bells are the most common and familiar alarm sounding device, and are appropriate for most building applications. Horns are another option, and are especially well suited to areas where a loud signal is needed such as library stacks, and architecturally sensitive buildings where devices need partial concealment. Chimes may be used where a soft alarm tone is preferred, such as health care facilities and theaters. Speakers are the fourth alarm sounding option, which sound a reproducible signal such as a recorded voice message. They are often ideally suited for large, multistory or other similar buildings where phased evacuation is preferred. Speakers also offer the added flexibility of emergency public address announcements. With respect to visual alert, there are a number of strobe and flashing light devices. Visual alerting is required in spaces where ambient noise levels are high enough to preclude hearing sounding equipment, and where hearing impaired occupants may be found. Standards such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) mandate visual devices in numerous museum, library, and historic building applications.

Another key function of the output function is emergency response notification. The most common arrangement is an automatic telephone or radio signal that is communicated to a constantly staffed monitoring center. Upon receiving the alert, the center will then contact the appropriate fire department, providing information about the location of alarm. In some instances, the monitoring station may be the police or fire departments, or a 911 center. In other instances it will be a private monitoring company that is under contract to the organization. In many cultural properties, the building’s inhouse security service may serve as the monitoring center.

Other output functions include shutting down electrical equipment such as computers, shutting off air handling fans to prevent smoke migration, and shutting down operations such as chemical movement through piping in the alarmed area. They may also activate fans to extract smoke, which is a common function in large atria spaces. These systems can also activate discharge of gaseous fire extinguishing systems, or preaction sprinkler systems.

2.5: Summary
In summary, there are several options for a building’s fire detection and alarm system. The ultimate system type, and selected components, will be dependent upon the building construction and value, its use or uses, the type of occupants, mandated standards, content value, and mission sensitivity. Contacting a fire engineer or other appropriate professional who understands fire problems and the different alarm and detection options is usually a preferred first step to find the best system.

3: Fire Sprinklers
3.1: Introduction
For most fires, water represents the ideal extinguishing agent. Fire sprinklers utilize water by direct application onto flames and heat, which causes cooling of the combustion process and prevents ignition of adjacent combustibles. They are most effective during the fire’s initial flame growth stage, while the fire is relatively easy to control. A properly selected sprinkler will detect the fire’s heat, initiate alarm, and begin suppression within moments after flames appear. In most instances sprinklers will control fire advancement within a few minutes of their activation, which will in turn result in significantly less damage than otherwise would happen without sprinklers.

Among the potential benefits of sprinklers are the following:

* Immediate identification and control of a developing fire. Sprinkler systems respond at all times, including periods of low occupancy. Control is generally instantaneous.

* Immediate alert. In conjunction with the building fire alarm system, automatic sprinkler systems will notify occupants and emergency response personnel of the developing fire.

* Reduced heat and smoke damage. Significantly less heat and smoke will be generated when the fire is extinguished at an early stage.

* Enhanced life safety. Staff, visitors and fire fighters will be subject to less danger when fire growth is checked.

* Design flexibility. Egress route and fire/smoke barrier placement becomes less restrictive since early fire control minimizes demand on these systems. Many fire and building codes will permit design and operations flexibility based on the presence of a fire sprinkler system.

* Enhanced security. A sprinkler controlled fire can reduce demand on security forces by minimizing intrusion and theft opportunities.

* Decreased insurance expenditure. Sprinkler controlled fires are less damaging than fires in nonsprinklered buildings. Insurance underwriters may offer reduced premiums in sprinkler protected properties.

These benefits should be considered when deciding on the selection of automatic fire sprinkler protection.

3.2: Sprinkler System Components and Operation
Sprinkler systems are essentially a series of water pipes that are supplied by a reliable water supply. At selected intervals along these pipes are independent, heat activated valves known as sprinkler heads. It is the sprinkler that is responsible for water distribution onto the fire. Most sprinkler systems also include an alarm to alert occupants and emergency forces when sprinkler activation (fire) occurs.

During the incipient fire stage, the heat output is relatively low and is unable to cause sprinkler operation. However, as the fire intensity increases, the sprinkler’s sensing elements become exposed to elevated temperatures (typically in excess of 57-107°C (135-225°F), and begin to deform. Assuming temperatures remain high, as they would during an increasing fire, the element will fatigue after an approximate 30 to 120 second period. This releases the sprinkler’s seals allowing water to discharge onto the fire and begin the suppression action. In most situations less than 2 sprinklers are needed to control the fire. In fast growing fire scenarios, however, such as a flammable liquid spill, up to 12 sprinklers may be required.

In addition to normal fire control efforts, sprinkler operation may be interconnected to initiate building and fire department alarms, shutdown electrical and mech